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Sure, here are examples of fungi that reproduce by budding and by conidia:

(i) Budding: Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker's yeast or brewer's yeast, reproduces predominantly by budding. This fungus is widely used in baking and brewing industries.

(ii) Conidia: Example: Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus is a common mold species that reproduces asexually by producing conidia. These conidia are airborne and can cause respiratory infections in humans, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems.

Sure, here are examples of plants that reproduce through runners and offsets:

(i) Runner:

• Strawberries (Fragaria spp.): Strawberries reproduce through runners, which are also known as stolons. These are horizontal stems that grow along the ground and produce new plants at nodes. As the runner touches the soil, it roots and forms a new plant, which is genetically identical to the parent plant.

(ii) Offset:

• Hen and Chicks (Sempervivum spp.): Hen and chicks, also known as houseleeks, reproduce through offsets. These are small rosettes that form at the base of the parent plant. As they mature, they can be separated and replanted to grow into new individual plants.

The filiform apparatus is a structure found in the mature embryo sac of angiosperms (flowering plants). Its primary function is to guide the pollen tube towards the embryo sac during fertilization. The filiform apparatus consists of several elongated cells with highly specialized wall structures located near the micropylar end of the embryo sac. These cells produce chemicals that attract and guide the pollen tube, facilitating the successful fertilization of the ovule.

To determine the number of male gametophytes produced by the Abilobed, dithecous anther with 100 microspore mother cells per microsporangium, we need to understand the process of microsporogenesis.

Microsporogenesis involves the formation of microspores from microspore mother cells (also known as pollen mother cells) within the microsporangium. Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid microspores. Therefore, if there are 100 microspore mother cells per microsporangium, each microsporangium will produce 4 * 100 = 400 microspores.

Each microspore has the potential to develop into a male gametophyte (pollen grain). Hence, the number of male gametophytes produced by the anther would be the same as the number of microspores produced, which is 400.

Therefore, the Abilobed, dithecous anther can produce 400 male gametophytes.

The tapetum is a layer of cells found within the anther of a flowering plant. Its primary function is to nourish and support the development of pollen grains, which are the male gametophytes. If the tapetum malfunctions, it can result in the failure to produce viable male gametophytes for several reasons, but one significant reason is the lack of proper nutrition and support provided to the developing pollen grains.

The tapetum provides essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, to the developing pollen grains. It also helps in the removal of waste materials and facilitates the transfer of nutrients to the developing microspores. If the tapetum malfunctions, it may fail to provide these necessary nutrients and support, leading to impaired pollen development.

Without adequate nourishment and support from the tapetum, the male gametophytes may not undergo proper development, resulting in non-viable pollen grains. This can ultimately lead to the failure of successful pollination and fertilization in the plant, affecting its reproductive success.

In the human female reproductive system, fimbriae are finger-like projections found at the end of the fallopian tubes, which are also known as uterine tubes or oviducts. The fimbriae are located near the ovaries, extending from the infundibulum of the fallopian tube. Their primary function is to help capture and guide the released egg (oocyte) from the ovary into the fallopian tube.

When an egg is released from one of the ovaries during ovulation, the fimbriae create a sweeping motion to gently coax the egg into the fallopian tube. From there, the egg is transported towards the uterus, where it may be fertilized by sperm if  intercourse has occurred. If fertilization does occur, the resulting embryo will travel down the fallopian tube and implant itself into the lining of the uterus for further development. If fertilization does not occur, the egg is eventually expelled from the body during menstruation.

The human uterus, also known as the womb, is a vital reproductive organ in females where fertilized eggs implant and develop into fetuses during pregnancy. The uterus is composed of three layers: the innermost layer is called the endometrium, the middle layer is the myometrium, and the outer layer is the perimetrium (also known as the serosa). Here, we'll focus on the inner and middle walls:

1. Endometrium:

   • The innermost layer of the uterus is the endometrium. It plays a crucial role in pregnancy by providing a suitable environment for the implantation and nourishment of a fertilized egg (embryo).
   • The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes in response to hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle. These changes include thickening and shedding of the uterine lining, which is responsible for menstruation.
   • If fertilization occurs, the endometrium becomes receptive to the embryo, allowing it to implant and establish pregnancy. It then continues to provide a supportive environment for the developing embryo, forming the maternal part of the placenta for nutrient exchange between mother and fetus.

2. Myometrium:

   • The middle layer of the uterus is the myometrium, consisting of smooth muscle tissue. Its primary function is to contract during labor and childbirth to facilitate the expulsion of the fetus from the uterus.
   • During pregnancy, the myometrium also plays a critical role in maintaining the pregnancy by providing structural support to the growing fetus and participating in the process of labor when it's time for delivery.
   • The myometrium undergoes significant changes during pregnancy, including hypertrophy (increase in muscle mass) and increased contractility near the end of pregnancy to prepare for labor.

Overall, the inner and middle walls of the uterus work in concert to support pregnancy, facilitate embryo implantation, and enable childbirth through the cyclic changes of the endometrium and the contractile function of the myometrium.

Saheli pills, also known as centchroman, are a non-hormonal contraceptive pill primarily used by women in India. There are several reasons why some women choose to use Saheli pills:

1. Non-hormonal: Saheli pills do not contain hormones like estrogen or progesterone, unlike many other contraceptive methods such as birth control pills or hormonal IUDs. Some women may prefer non-hormonal methods due to concerns about hormonal side effects or health risks associated with hormonal contraceptives.

2. Fewer side effects: Saheli pills are generally well-tolerated and have fewer side effects compared to hormonal contraceptives. This can be appealing to women who have experienced side effects with other contraceptive methods or who are looking for a more natural option.

3. Reversible: Saheli pills are reversible, meaning that fertility returns shortly after discontinuing use. This makes them suitable for women who may want to become pregnant in the future or who are looking for a temporary contraceptive option.

4. Long-acting: Saheli pills are taken once a week, making them a convenient option for women who may have difficulty remembering to take a daily pill or who prefer not to use more invasive contraceptive methods like implants or IUDs.

5. Cultural preferences: In some cultures, there may be preferences for non-hormonal contraceptive methods, and Saheli pills provide an option that aligns with these preferences.

Overall, Saheli pills offer women a non-hormonal, reversible, and relatively side-effect-free contraceptive option, making them a popular choice for some women, particularly in regions like India where they are widely available.